Four hundred years ago, in March of 1610, a pamphlet-like little book was published in Venice. The title page, as translated from New Latin*, sums up its contents with unabashed enthusiasm:

Sidereus nuncius magna (Starry Messenger) by Galileo Galilei 1610

“Revealing great, unusual, and

remarkable spectacles, opening these

to the consideration of every man,

and especially of philosophers

and astronomers;

as Observed by Galileo Galilei

Gentleman of Florence

Professor of Mathematics in the

University of Padua,

With the Aid of a

                            Spyglass

                    lately invented by him,… “ 

In this little book, Sidereus nuncius – The Starry Messenger — Galileo Galilei, then a professor of mathematics, and ingenious experimenter, described how he had first learned of the so-called ‘spyglass,’ calling it a “perspiculum” and later adopting the appellation “telescopio” — “far-seeing device” in Italian. In spite of the slight exaggeration about having ‘lately invented’ the thing, Galileo did make significant modifications to the original design that enabled him to increase its magnification, teaching himself to grind and polish lenses in order to do so. With his practical, reverse-engineering sort of  mind, Galileo had figured out, not just how to replicate, but also how to improve it, and thus, with one eye turned toward the skies and one toward advancing his own career, he quickly constructed his first prototype with some eyeglass lenses fitted into a lead tube.

 He continued to experiment with the design until he had twenty- and thirty-powered versions which he promptly turned to the sky, making the first detailed observations of the Moon and then later of some little ‘stars’ he spotted next to Jupiter. These discoveries, as described in eloquent detail in the Sidereus nuncius, eventually led to a cosmological paradigm shift, but not without pain and suffering on the part of its author.

Galileo's drawings of Jupiter and "stars" or moons in Sidereus Nuncius

The observations of the ‘stars,’ as he called them, moons really, Jupiter’s four largest of its many moons, seen by Galileo for the first time in history and described by him in this 18 page treatise, was a monumental event that rocked both the scientific and religious worlds. Galileo observed Jupiter’s moons from Jan. 7 through 15, 1610, thinking at first that they were indeed stars, but quickly deducing that, in fact, they were planetary bodies revolving around Jupiter. What this discovery proved was that the Earth was not the only celestial body around which others revolved, convincing Galileo, not just of the truth of the Copernican system (which he already believed), but that he had found the evidence that would persuade those who refused to believe in a Universe in which all the planets orbited the Sun.

In this little book, rushed to print within 6 weeks and literally assembled as he was making his last observations of Jupiter’s moons, Galileo chose to name his newly discovered moons the ‘Medician Stars,’ after Cosimo Medici II and his brothers, the royal political dynasty of the time, and from whom Galileo hoped to obtain a court position and a higher standard of living. The moons were Galileo’s discovery; he could name them whatever he wanted, but in acknowledging the Medici he calculated on improving his prospects, and was indeed rewarded with appointment as Royal Professor of Mathematics and Philosophy in Florence. However, naming ‘stars’ after secular powers only went so far; the implication that the Earth was no longer the center of the Universe violated the Church’s sacred cosmology, and, if the Venetian Medici had a little power, the Roman Catholic Church had a lot. As far as Galileo was concerned, though, he had his proof and was ready to persuade anyone who would give him a listen.

As additional astronomical discoveries made with the telescope added credence to the Copernican view that the Sun is the center of our Universe, or at least that Earth, Venus and Mercury all revolve around it, Galileo initiated his campaign against the Church, a risky proposition during the Inquisition, even if your best friend becomes Pope. And so began the “Galileo Affair.” Inevitably Galileo was forced to face the Inquisitors, and, in spite of all his best reasoning was ultimately forbidden by the Church authorities to teach or advocate Copernicanism. In 1633 he was sentenced to house arrest for the rest of his life.

Despite this he continued to work and to make further astonishing discoveries until he died in 1642. Among other things he invented the science of dynamics, thus paving the way for Newton to develop the theory of universal gravitation, thus paving the way for Einstein to develop the theory of general relativity, thus paving the way for …

A smiling Galileo Galilei, 1564-1642

Special Event:

On February 17, from 11:30 am to 12:30 pm, in Dining Room A, Madison Building, ST&B will host the first of its series of speakers for 2010, with Michelle Thaller, NASA Scientist, discussing “Galileo: 400 Years of the Telescope.” The Library of Congress owns an original copy of Sidereus nuncius and will have this item on display after the program. This item is part of the Rare Books collection and this is a rare opportunity to view it. Other titles from the General Collections will also be on display.

^*  From Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo, translated and edited by Stillman Drake, copyright 1957.

Sun Life Stadium

This Sunday, February 7^th, is a big day in advertising, one where many companies try out or launch new ads for television. It is also Super Bowl Sunday! How many of us watch the game as much for the advertising as for the game itself? I know I do!

Advertising is big business – especially during the Super Bowl. The cost for a 30 second spot has steadily increased over the years. For Super Bowl 1 in 1967 the average cost for a 30 second commercial was $40,000 (adjusted for inflation in 2007 dollars it would be $245,350)[1]. Now compare that with today where the 30 second spots for Super Bowl 44 are selling between $2.5 million and $2.8 million (actually down from $3.0 million for 2009).[2]

An interesting note on this years’ crop of commercials is that the U.S. Census Bureau is airing a commercial during the 3^rd quarter of the game (and 2 during the pregame show) because this is the year for the decennial census. They have also put together a “Facts for Features” page for Super Bowl XLIV highlighting statistics for the cities of each team (New Orleans & Indianapolis) as well as for the host city (Miami). The Statistical Abstract for 2010 has summary information for college and professional football [PDF: 451 KB / 1 p.] from 1990 to 2008 highlighting the number of teams, game attendance and player salaries.

Green Bay Packers (#85 Max McGee) play Kansas City Chiefs (#22 Willie Mitchell) in Super Bowl 1967 at Los Angeles Coliseum

The teams playing this year are the New Orleans Saints and the Indianapolis Colts. Follow these links for information on the teams and players. Perhaps you would rather test your knowledge of Super Bowl history, try the trivia game on the NFL website. For further research about the history of the NFL check out our guide, The Business of Professional Football and for Super Bowl history a subject search will show you the Library holdings.

So who is advertising this year? Take a look at this list of Who’s Buying What in the Super Bowl 2010 from Advertising Age. My favorite commercial so far is from Super Bowl 2003, Budweiser’s upside down clown. One co-worker’s favorite is the Electronic Data Systems’ (EDS) herding cats from Super Bowl 2000. Another co-worker and blogger for In the Muse: Performing Arts Blog, Pat Padua, mentioned his favorite event for this day is the Animal Planet Puppy Bowl.

What’s your favorite commercial or Super Bowl Sunday event?

[1] Advertising Age: Super Bowl 2007. Advertising History: 40 Years of Prices and Audience.
http://adage.com/SuperBowlBuyers/superbowlhistory07.html

[2] Super Bowl Commercial Prices Fall for Second Time EVER by Emily Fredrix 01/11/10 6:28PM/ AP retrieved from Huffingtonpost.com: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/01/11/super-bowl-commercial-pri_n_418245.html

George Washington Carver, half-length portrait, facing right, Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1906

Before my time, back in the 1980’s, LC science librarian Vivian Ovelton Sammons had several students come into the Science and Business Reading Room looking for the names of 75 black scientists. Vivian could name about 10 off the top of her head, but 75 seemed like a challenge. This experience proved to be the inspiration to create a guide to help librarians, students, and the general public find information about black scientists in the United States.

After many years of helping students find information about black scientists, Vivian collected her references and created the guide Blacks in the Sciences and Related Disciplines. She also published the significant work Blacks in Science and Medicine (New York, Hemisphere Pub., c1990), which contains over 1,500 biographical entries. Her work identifying biographical sources and information on black scientists is monumental. Her work has assisted thousands upon thousands of authors, black history scholars, librarians, students, and members of the general public to learn more about our country’s African American scientists.

 Although Vivian is retired from the Library,  we carry on the work she started. Our Science Reference Service continues to create and update guides to  finding information on African Americans in science and technology:

Chemistry laboratory at Howard University, Washington, D.C. (ca. 1900). Photo displayed as part of the American Negro exhibit at the Paris Exposition of 1900.

Blacks in the Sciences and Related Disciplines

African American Science Books for Younger Readers

African Americans in Science and Technology  (Selected Internet Resources only)

African Americans in Science and Technology Exhibit Reading List

African American Women in the Military and at War

African-American Women in the Sciences and Related Disciplines

And for information about African Americans in business, our Business Reference Service has compiled this excellent guide on African American Business Resources.

If you are interested in learning more about the history of African Americans in the sciences– Kenneth Manning has written extensively on the subject:

Manning, Kenneth R.  African Americans in Science in Ideology, identity, and assumptions.  Edited by Howard Dodson and Colin Palmer. New York, New York Public Library, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture; Ann Arbor, MI, ProQuest CSA; East Lansing, Michigan State University Press, c2007.  p. 49-56 (excerpt from the book)

Manning, Kenneth. Blacks in science have rich history, but diversity efforts must continue. MIT News, January 13, 1999.

Manning, Kenneth. Essays on Science and Society: Science and Opportunity. Science, v. 282, Nov. 6, 1998: 1037-1038.

For more information about events, exhibitions, and symposia this month, as well as, more resources on African American contributions– Check out the Library’s African American History Month portal.  Also of interest is the Library’s new online exhibition NAACP: A Century in the Fight for Freedom.

Interior detail. Library of Congress John Adams Building, Washington, D.C.

This medallion is located on the center of the desk in the Science & Business reading room.

To see what else you might find Inside Adams there are two activities we encourage you to take advantage of when you are in Washington, D.C.

First, there is a monthly tour of the Science & Business Reading Room at 11 am on the first Wednesday of the month. Business and Science staff will show researchers around the reading room and point out specifics in the Reference collections for both Business and Science.

Also, just after the tour, the Business Reference staff does a Business Research Orientation at 12 noon, where we cover some basic information about doing research at the Library as well as review databases, research strategies, and sources specific to business research.

You are welcome to attend one or both of these events. Both meet in the elevator bay on the 5^th Floor of the Adams Building. You can just show up, but we encourage you to sign up on-line in advance for the tour and/or the Business Research Orientation.

Note: We do recommend that you get your reader registration card ahead of time.

The next tour & orientation takes place on Wednesday, February 3rd – come join us.

The dotcom bust (2000-2002) took its toll. I was working for a high tech company in Silicon Valley (San Jose, CA) that was going through round after round of layoffs. I was wondering what’s next? Who’s next? It was now time to figure out what’s next. After some soul searching and a part-time job (for fun) at a library I knew and I went back to school. Then, last year I found myself very excited about a new career here at the Library of Congress!

No doubt there are many out there thinking about second careers and wondering “can I do this?” “Where do I begin to figure this out?”

Begin here! Take a look at the many books available on the subject of career changes or career development then see what might be available at a library near you. A popular title and one found in most libraries is What color is your parachute?* In this book there are exercises to help you figure out what you might be suited for.

Some public libraries, like New York Public Library or Livermore Public Library for example, have set up job centers to help their patrons. See if your local library provides this service. The Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics has a page for job seekers where you can find information on careers across many industries as well as what industries are projected to grow in the future.

Are you on your second career? How did you get there? Please share your experiences and perhaps inspire someone else along the way.

*New editions of this publication are pretty regular – the most current version is “The 2009 What color is your parachute: a practical manual for job-hunters and career changers.”

Since many people are unaware of these lectures and webcasts, I will be highlighting topics and speakers in this year’s series in posts called What’s for Lunch. Without a doubt, our lecture series is a treasure trove just waiting to be discovered!

Last year we had the honor of hosting Jane Goodall, who spoke about her new book Hope for Animals and Their World: How Endangered Species Are Being Rescued from the Brink. In addition, working with the Library’s Music Division and the Dana Foundation, we co-sponsored a cycle of lectures and concerts for the Music and the Brain series. This series is available as podcasts and on our Youtube channel.

Steven Raichlin, "Barbecue: A History of the World’s Oldest Culinary Art" June 24, 2005 Library of Congress

Some of my favorite lectures involved the topic of food. Back in 2007 celebrated cookbook editor Judith Jones, who discovered Julia Child, spoke on her  book The Tenth Muse, My Life in Food. In 2005, barbecue expert Steven Raichlen spoke on Barbecue: A History of the World’s Oldest Culinary Art and Laura Schenone talked about her book A Thousand Years Over a Hot Stove: A History of American Women Told Through Food, Recipes, and Remembrances.

We also have an ongoing partnership with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Leading NASA scientists come to the Library to present the latest research, tools, technology and findings. Last year we learned about the changing polar ice covers from head of the Cryospheric Sciences Branch Thorsten Markus, the final mission to Hubble from just-retired senior project scientist of the Hubble Space Telescope Program David Leckrone, and the possibility of extraterrestrial life in our solar system from astrobiologist Daniel P. Glavin.

We are busy confirming our upcoming events, but here are some teasers on the menu in 2010:

Wed., Feb. 17: NASA scientist Michelle Thaller will speak on Galileo: the Real Story.

Wed., March 17: Mars Update

Wed., April 21: Shedding Light on Dark Matter (with Uniview software)

Wed., May 19: Chesapeake Bay from Space: New Views of a National Treasure

Tues., June 15 Chocolate Chip Cookie Bake-off: Celebration of the acquisition of Ruth Grave Wakefield’s 1938 Toll House Tired and True Recipes .

Wed., Sept. 22: Observing the Living Oceans from Space

Wed., Oct. 27: Volcanoes –Near, Far and Really Far Away

So stop by and join us for lunch!

College football game, Syracuse, N.Y. c1908

I’m not a huge sports fan, I watch an occasional game and it seems there are a couple of days each year when all you find on television are football games. New Years day is one of those days (Thanksgiving is another). Knowing that we have a resource guide on the sports industry and that my co-worker (and co-author), Ellen Terrell, has an interest in football we thought a post on the topic might be fun.

Anytime I go looking for information it seems like the Census Bureau always has some little tidbit of information. In this case, in 1985 there were 509 football teams in the NCAA and in 2008 the number had grown to 628 teams. During this same period of time attendance at these games increased by about 40% from 34,952,000 in 1985 to 48,839,000 in 2008. (2010 Statistical Abstract, Table 1207 and 1996 Statistical Abstract, Sec. 7, Table 412)

Also about this time of year sports writers often write about the top programs in terms of revenue. The Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act requires schools to prepare an annual report on their overall revenues to the Department of Education’s Office of Postsecondary Education. The Department of Education created an analysis tool designed to provide customized reports for public inquiries relating to equity in athletics data. Data is available for a single institution or for a group of institutions and searches can be done geographically, by sanctioning body or by a particular conference.

In terms of revenue the Bowl Champion Series (BCS) is a whole different ball game (the pun really wasn’t intended but did seem to fit). For those of you who didn’t know, the BCS is a 5-game system formed in 1998 and managed by the 11 Division I-A conferences, and is designed to match the two top rated teams in a national championship game.

For further research, the resources found in our guide on professional football should be useful.

Many thanks to Ellen Terrell, my co-author for this post.

New York, New York. Blowing horns on Bleeker Street on New Year's Day (1943)

January 1 begins the new year of the Gregorian calendar. Many of us who celebrate this day have traditions for bringing in the New Year such as banging pots and pans, blowing horns, kissing the person next to you, and making resolutions.  We also have food traditions and special meals that we prepare and serve on New Year ’s Eve or Day to ensure health, luck, and prosperity.

Here are a few I have discovered:

In the American South, there is a tradition of eating black-eyed peas (Hoppin’ John) and greens, such as collards, on New Year’s Day. This tradition is considered to bring good luck and prosperity: the peas symbolize coins and the greens symbolize paper money.  Often, there is rice in the dish, which swells up with water symbolizing an increase of riches.

Those of Spanish and Portuguese descent eat 12 grapes, raisins, or pomegranate seeds at midnight, one at each stroke of the clock.

The Japanese have a custom of eating toshikoshi soba (buckwheat noodles) representing longevity and wealth.

Greek and Eastern European families bake vasilopita- sweet bread shaped like a wreath and baked with a coin (good luck) inside. The circle shape symbolizes a rounded and complete year.

The Dutch prepare oliebollen, doughnuts to be eaten at the stroke of midnight.

Those of Scottish descent celebrate Hogmanay or Old Year’s Night. Customs vary, but many will be eating dundee cake and black buns and drinking Hogmanay punch (apple cider and Scotch whiskey).

French-Canadians prepare a tourtiere or pork pie.

Italians make a dish of lentils and cotechino (sausage) to symbolize wealth and money for the New Year.

Pennsylvania Dutch serve sauerkraut (wealth) and pork (a pig roots forward, thus symbolizing moving into the future).

People from Germany, Austria and other northern European countries present pink marzipan pigs for good luck. This tradition may be related to the German expression for I’ve been lucky or “ich habe Schwein gehabt,” which is literally translated as “I have had pig.”

In Switzerland, whipped cream is eaten, letting a small portion spill on the floor where it remains all year.

Last, but not least, I discovered a couple other New Year’s traditions that began in early America:

17^th century Dutch immigrants from the Hudson River instituted the “opening of the house” on New Year’s Day, which was also adopted by the colonial English. Women would stay at home entertaining and serving food & drink, while the men made “social calls” to mend and tend to relationships.

Crowd waiting in line outside of White House for New Year reception

Following in the New Year’s “open house” tradition, George Washington issued Presidential New Year’s Eve levees (reception) – one could visit with the President without an invitation.  Folks would line up outside the White House  for the opportunity of the New Year’s Day “open house.” This tradition ended with FDR in the 1940’s.

If you interested in food traditions and customs, as I am,  see our LC Science Tracer Bullet on Food History

There are many more New Year’s food traditions that I didn’t have space to mention, but feel free to send us yours!

Happy New Year Currier & Ives, c1876

References:

Gaster, Theodor H.  New Year: its history, customs, and superstitions. New York, Abelard-Schuman, c1955.

Gay, Kathlyn and Martin K. Gay. Encyclopedia of North American eating & drinking: traditions, customs, and rituals. Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, c1996.

Hooker, Richard J. Food and drink in America: a history. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill Company, c1981.

Oxford companion to American food and drink. Edited by Andrew F. Smith. Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press, c2007.

Schrambling, Regina.  Good-luck foods: a New Year’s tradtion. Historic preservation, Dec. 1984, v. 36: 54-57.

Photochrom print ca. 1890-1900: Winter scene

• about 91% of holiday long distance travel is by personal vehicle
• the average long-distance trip length over the Christmas/New Year’s holiday is 275 miles
• about 50% of us make same-day trips, the other half averages about 4 nights away
• the average age of the Christmas/New Year’s holiday travelers is slightly above 36 years
• during this time more men travel than women (54.5% to 45.5%)

Business establishments in Colorado City, Texas - May 1939

Ever thought about starting your own business or maybe doing something out of your home? This seems to be a topic on the minds of many people recently. The number of questions about starting a business that have been received through our Ask a Librarian service has increased, and there have also been other blog posts on this topic. It seems like a good time to share the resources available here at the Library as well as other government agencies.

Business Reference Services has put together a number of guides for the budding entrepreneur or for smaller businesses looking to expand. Check out our Indexes, Bibliographies and Guides or Internet Resources for information on business plans, finding venture capital, or general resources for small business. To see what may have been recently published on these topics, try a subject search in our catalog using some of these subject headings (sort the results in descending order to see most current publications):

Business establishments in Colorado City, Texas - May 1939

• Business enterprises
• Business planning
• Entrepreneurship
• Franchises (Retail trade)
• Home-based businesses
• Minority business enterprises
• New business enterprises
• Self-employed
• Small business
• Venture capital

Government websites also offer information and assistance. Business.gov can help if you are starting a business or looking to expand. They also offer a small business community where you can ask questions and share information with other small business owners. The Small Business Administration (SBA) has a small business planner to help you through the process from start to finish along with services that include information on loans, grants, and even some online training. SBA can even help you locate some local resources.

Other blog posts on this topic:

• Do Your Homework (Literally!) from the Library of Congress Blog
• Starting A Business? Government Can Help from GovGab
• Owning A Small Business from GovGab