This post is by Manuscript Division archives technician Kendall McKinley. Of Note is an occasional series in which we share items that have caught our eye.
In December 1898, Spain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris, formally concluding the Spanish-American War. Following its defeat and the loss of its overseas colonies, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. In early 1899, fighting resumed, this time between the First Philippine Republic and the United States, escalating into the brutal guerilla conflict known as the Philippine-American War. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt declared a policy of general amnesty and proclaimed the Philippines an American colony, despite continued resistance in the southern Moro Province until 1913.
Capturing the tensions of this transitional period, Apolinario Mabini (1864-1903), who had been the prime minister of the First Philippine Republic in 1899, issued a revolutionary manifesto in 1902 outlining his continued support for Filipino self-determination. Reflecting the enduring influence of Mabini’s philosophy, Manuel Quezon (1878-1944) kept a facsimile of the manifesto while serving as the resident commissioner of the Philippines. In this role, Quezon served as a non-voting member of the United States House of Representatives from 1909 to 1916 where he lobbied for Philippine independence. His efforts to promote bilaterial cooperation, both in this role and later as president of the Philippines, aligned with the ideals in Mabini’s manifesto, suggesting Mabini’s likely influence on Quezon. The version of the manifesto housed in the Library of Congress is a facsimile sent from the office of Manuel Quezon to James A. Roberston, an archivist and historian of the Philippines. In 1916 Robertson donated the facsimile to the Library of Congress.
The manifesto was composed by Mabini while in Guam, where he was held in exile by American colonial authorities. In the manifesto Mabini outlined his vision for an independent Philippines, stating his goal to “find out in our past the most useful lessons for the present and the future.” Mabini reflected on his negotiations with American officials during the brief existence of the First Philippine Republic, emphasizing his desire to reach a mutually beneficial compromise with the United States. He maintained that it was possible to establish a political system shaped by American ideals without undermining the legitimate political representation of Filipinos, and he called for “mutual concessions” between Filipinos and Americans.
In the manifesto, Mabini expressed his desire to integrate democratic principles into a new Philippine government. After discussing his apprehensions with then Governor General William H. Taft (later United States president), Mabini recorded Taft’s assurance that American sovereignty in the Philippines would mirror that of other global powers. Taft noted that “the only difference [being] that the Americans, having been educated in a free government, will try to give a more liberal form to their notions of sovereignty.” Recognizing the irony in this claim, Mabini concluded that “it was more prudent for a government not to openly oppose the desires of the governed people,” reaffirming his commitment to popular sovereignty. Mabini fervently believed in the need for genuine independence in the Philippines, free from false pretenses or marginal political representation for Filipinos. He asserted that his primary loyalty was to the Filipino people, with a mission to dismantle the remnants of Spanish imperial rule and to “build a new one [government] more adequate to the real necessities of the Filipinos and more flexible to the changes or reforms their civilization would require.”
While he praised elements of American democratic ideals, Mabini was critical of the anti-democratic system the United States sought to impose on the Philippines, regardless of its liberal intentions. In his view, a truly democratic Philippine government would be elected by the people and shaped by American political values without the burden of colonial control. Although he did not live to see Philippine independence realized, Mabini’s nuanced approach to relations between the United States and the Philippines would influence later Filipino politicians, particularly those involved in the negotiations over Philippine independence during the interwar period.
Regardless of Manuel Quezon’s intentions for the manifesto, the presence of Mabini’s work in the Manuscript Division suggests its historic and symbolic importance for Quezon during his residency in Washington. Thus, the dual history of this document, both as a revolutionary text and a political artifact, reflects its enduring influence on Filipino political thought. The political theories and historical analysis raised by Mabini were not only foundational to the construction of the American colonial government in the Philippines, but their legacy influenced generations of thinkers, politicians, and revolutionaries, shaping the basis of the relationship between the United States and the Philippines for the remainder of the twentieth century.
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“Spain ceded the Philippines . . .” “Treaty of Paris, 1898” Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed August 14, 2025.
“a policy of general amnesty . . .” Daniel Immerwahr, How to Hide an Empire: A History of the Greater United States (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2019), 113-118.
“In this role . . .” Manuel Quezon, The Good Fight (London: Appleton-Century, 1946), 149-150.
“a facsimile . . .” “Obituary: James Alexander Robertson,” American Antiquarian Society, 9.
“The manifesto . . .” Cesar A. Majul, Mabini and the Philippine Revolution (Quezon City: University of the Philippines, 1960), 436.
“an independent Philippines . . .” Apolinario Mabini, “Manifesto regarding the American occupation and the Philippine insurrection,” Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, 78.
“He maintained . . .” Mabini, “Manifesto,” 87.
“Taft noted . . .” Mabini, “Manifesto,” 84.
“reaffirming his commitment . . .” Mabini, “Manifesto,” 84.
“dismantle the remnants . . .” Mabini, “Manifesto,” 11-12.
“While he praised . . .” Julian Go, American Empire and the Politics of Meaning (Durham: Duke University Press, 2008), 1-4.
“In his view . . .” Mabini, “Manifesto,” 17.
“their legacy . . .” Majul, Mabini, 465-470.